📚 Sources & Data

Data used to compute figures - ASTM G173-03 reference spectra (AM0 extraterrestrial, AM1.5 global tilt, AM1.5 direct+circumsolar), 280–4000 nm. Copy used: pvlib-python repository, pvlib/data/ASTMG173.csv (downloaded 3 Oct 2026; the NREL/NLR RReDC host was unreachable from the build machine). Integrals computed here: AM0 1347.9 W/m², AM1.5G 1000.4 W/m², AM1.5D 900.1 W/m². - Physical constants: CODATA 2018 / 2019 SI exact values (h, c, e, k_B), σ, Wien b. - IAU 2015 Resolution B3 nominal solar values (T_eff = 5772 K, R☉ = 6.957 × 10⁸ m); 1 AU = 1.495978707 × 10¹¹ m. - Shockley–Queisser curve: detailed-balance calculation done here (300 K cell, AM1.5G, step absorber). Result: 33.7 % max at 1.34 eV; Si (1.12 eV) 33.4 %. - Silicon refractive index: approximate values after Green (2008).

Core references - C. Honsberg & S. Bowden, PVEducation, pveducation.org (sections Introduction, Properties of Sunlight, Semiconductors, Solar Cell Operation, Manufacturing, Modules). - W. Shockley & H. J. Queisser, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 510 (1961). - A. Richter, M. Hermle, S. W. Glunz, IEEE J. Photovoltaics 3, 1184 (2013). - G. Kopp & J. Lean, Geophys. Res. Lett. 38, L01706 (2011) — total solar irradiance. - F. Kasten & A. T. Young, Applied Optics 28, 4735 (1989) — air mass. - P. T. Landsberg & G. Tonge, J. Appl. Phys. 51, R1 (1980). - M. A. Green, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 92, 1305 (2008) — Si optical constants. - P. P. Altermatt et al., J. Appl. Phys. 93, 1598 (2003) — intrinsic carrier density. - A. A. Istratov, H. Hieslmair, E. R. Weber, Appl. Phys. A 69, 13 (1999) — iron in silicon. - D. Macdonald & L. J. Geerligs, Appl. Phys. Lett. 85, 4061 (2004). - F. A. Trumbore, Bell Syst. Tech. J. 39, 205 (1960) — segregation coefficients. - H. Seidel et al., J. Electrochem. Soc. 137, 3612 (1990) — KOH etching. - B. E. Deal & A. S. Grove, J. Appl. Phys. 36, 3770 (1965). - W. Kern & D. Puotinen, RCA Review 31, 187 (1970). - S. M. George, Chem. Rev. 110, 111 (2010) — ALD. - R. D. Shannon, Acta Cryst. A32, 751 (1976) — ionic radii.

Textbooks - M. A. Green, Silicon Solar Cells; S. R. Wenham et al., Applied Photovoltaics; J. Nelson, The Physics of Solar Cells; A. Luque & S. Hegedus (eds.), Handbook of PV Science and Engineering. - S. M. Sze & K. K. Ng, Physics of Semiconductor Devices; S. M. Sze (ed.), VLSI Technology; J. D. Plummer, M. D. Deal, P. B. Griffin, Silicon VLSI Technology. - W. D. Callister & D. G. Rethwisch, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction; C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics; E. Hecht, Optics; M. Ohring, Materials Science of Thin Films; J. Crank, The Mathematics of Diffusion. - CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics; ASM Handbook Vol. 3 (phase diagrams).

Industry reports - ITRPV, International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic, 17th ed. (June 2026). - Fraunhofer ISE, Photovoltaics Report (14 July 2026). - IEA PVPS Task 13 (T13-30:2025) and Task 12 (T12-31:2025) executive summaries.

Safety - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards; NIOSH Hierarchy of Controls; OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200 and 1910.147; SEMI S2 and NFPA 318 (named only); IPCC AR5 (GWP of NF₃).

Standards named but not opened (paid documents): IEC 60904-3, IEC 60904-9, IEC 61215, IEC 61853, ASTM E490, ISO 15387, ISO 14644-1, SEMI M1.

Caveats. Exposure limits and some property values were written from the author's knowledge of these standard references and are flagged "verify" where it matters. All estimates are labelled. Record efficiencies change frequently — check the NREL/NLR chart and Fraunhofer report for current values.